Simple 
Water  Testing 


b r 

PHILIP  EDELMAN 


THE  JOSEPH  G.  BRANCH  PUBLISHING  CO. 


Return  this  book  on  or  before  the 
Latest  Date  stamped  below.  A 
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books. 

U.  of  I.  Library 


Noii  rit 


14685-S 


Simple  Water  Testing 


BY 

PHILIP  EDELMAN 


CHICAGO 

The  Jogeph  G.  Branch  Publishing  Co. 

1913 


Copyright,  1913,  by 
Joseph  G.  Branch. 


THE  HENRY  O.  SHEPARD  CO.,  PRINTERS,  CHICAGO. 


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ELECTRICAL 

EilCIKEEWMO 

PREFACE 


This  book  gives  the  practical  worker  a useful  under- 
standing of  water,  so  as  to  enable  him  to  analyze 
quickly  and  with  but  little  expense  boiler  feed-water, 
and  to  show  how  the  ill  effects  of  impurities  may  be 
regulated. 

Natural  water  is  never  found  pure.  Rain  water  is 
the  purest  natural  water.  As  the  rain  falls  it  washes 
the  gases  and  dust  from  the  air.  Upon  striking  the 
ground,  it  takes  up  impurities  from  the  soil,  the  rocks 
and  plants.  Part  of  the  water  flows  on  the  surface, 
absorbing  more  impurities.  On  filtering  through  the 
ground,  the  water  loses  most  of  its  organic  impurities 
which  were  absorbed  from  vegetable  and  animal  de- 
posits on  the  surface.  As  it  does  this,  however,  it  also 
dissolves  and  absorbs  mineral  matter  and  gases. 

Since  all  boiler  feed-water  must  necessarily  con- 
tain these  impurities  to  a greater  or  lesser  extent,  the 
engineer  must  know  how  to  avoid  same,  and  this  book 
will  tell  you  in  a clear  and  practical  way  how  to  do  it. 

It  explains  it  all  so  clearly  that  you  can  analyze  the 
water  yourself,  and  be  able  to  adopt  proper  remedies 
for  counteracting  the  ill  effects  of  such  impurities. 


May  12,  1913. 


THE  AUTHOR. 


I 


283860 


Simple  Water  Testing 


CHAPTER  I. 

The  purpose  of  presenting  this  material,  under  the 
title  of  “Simple  Water  Testing,”  is  to  give  practical 
workers  a useful  understanding  of  water,  to  enable 
them  to  analyze  feed-waters,  and  to  show  how  the  ill 
effects  of  impurities  may  be  regulated. 

Occurrence  of  Water  in  Nature. 

There  are  three  general  forms  of  water : the  liquid, 
vapor,  and  ice.  Water  as  a liquid  covers  about  three- 
fourths  of  the  earth's  surface.  All  animals  and  plants 
contain  large  quantities  of  water  and  soil,  and  porous 
rocks  hold  a considerable  amount.  Many  substances, 
like  paper,  which  appear  dry,  contain  a large  propor- 
tion of  water.  The  human  body  is  nearly  seventy  per 
cent  water,  and  the  foods  that  are  required  to  sustain 
life  contain  large  amounts. 

Water  is  continually  evaporating  from  the  surface 
of  the  oceans,  lakes  and  rivers,  from  moist  earth,  from 
animals  and  from  plants.  As  a vapor,  water  is  present 
in  the  atmosphere,  and  when  this  vapor  condenses  it 
appears  in  the  form  of  clouds,  mist,  fog,  rain,  snow, 
dew,  hail  and  frost. 

As  ice,  water  covers  the  polar  regions  and  the  tops 
of  high  mountains. 

Source  of  Water. 

Natural  water  is  never  found  pure.  Rain  water  is 
the  purest  natural  water.  As  the  rain  falls,  it  washes 
gases  and  dust  from  the  air.  Upon  striking  the  ground 


2 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


it  takes  up  impurities  from  the  soil,  the  rocks  and 
plants.  Part  of  the  water  flows  on  the  surface,  absorb- 
ing more  and  more  impurities.  As  streams,  creeks  and 
rivers,  this  water  finally  reaches  the  ocean.  A large 
part  of  the  rainfall  soaks  into  the  ground  and  gradually 
filters  through  the  soil.  On  filtering  through  the 
ground  the  water  loses  most  of  its  organic  impurities 
which  were  absorbed  from  vegetable  and  animal  de- 
posits on  the  surface.  As  it  does  this,  however,  it  also 
dissolves  mineral  matter  and  gases.  This  water 
finally  reaches  the  surface  again  as  a spring  or  well. 

The  most  common  mineral  compounds  which  are 
found  in  water  as  a result  of  this  filtering  through  the 
ground  are : 

1.  Calcium  and  magnesium  compounds.  Water 
containing  these  is  called  hard  water. 

2.  Chlorin  and  chlorids. 

3.  Carbon  dioxid  gas,  alkaline  matter  and  sulphur 
compounds. 

4.  Iron  compounds. 

5.  Lime  and  magnesium  compounds. 

6.  Traces  of  many  other  substances. 

These  underground  waters  eventually  enter  into  a 
lake  or  river.  Since  it  is  from  these  rivers  and  lakes 
that  feed-waters  usually  come,  it  is  well  to  note  the 
manner  in  which  impurities  occur.  In  the  first  place 
it  must  be  remembered  that  water  is  a great  solvent. 
As  a result,  all  water  has  more  or  less  mineral  matter 
and  gases  dissolved  in  it.  The  amount  of  mineral 
matter  will  naturally  vary  according  to  the  soil  which 
it  has  filtered  through.  The  proportion  of  these  min- 
eral impurities  may  mean  a great  difference  in  the 
usefulness  of  the  water,  as  will  be  seen  later.  Simi- 
larly, the  kinds  of  mineral  matter  found  in  the  water 
are  due  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  through  which  it  has 
passed.  Since  the  soil  varies  greatly  in  different  locali- 
ties, it  follows  that  there  are  great  differences  in  the 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


3 


water  in  each  district.  This  makes  set  rules  and  cal- 
culations in  which  water  is  concerned  impossible  for 
all  localities. 

Supply  from  Rivers. 

River  water  contains  the  impurities  from  both  the 
waters  which  have  been  filtered  into  the  ground  and 
surface  waters.  These  surface  waters  form  little 
brooks  and  creeks,  and  owe  their  impurities  largely 
to  the  erosive  power  of  water.  Surface  waters  have 
minute  organic  matter,  bits  of  animal  and  vegetable 
refuse,  suspended  in  them.  These  are  often  so  well 
suspended  that  the  eye  can  not  detect  them,  and  again 
they  may  be  so  thick  that  the  water  is  colored  by  them. 

River  water,  in  addition  to  these  impurities,  con- 
tains matter  from  sewers,  refuse  from  cities  and  fac- 
tories and  other  insoluble  particles.  Rivers  often  con- 
tain much  suspended  soil  particles.  Slow  rivers  are 
generally  more  impure  than  swift  ones. 

Swift  rivers,  however,  are  liable  to  be  more  turbid 
than  the  slow  streams  because  the  suspended  matter 
does  not  have  a chance  to  settle.  Sometimes  the 
muddy  appearance  of  river  water  is  caused  by  the  swift 
current  washing  the  bed  along  with  it.  Such  muddy 
water  is  called  turbid  water. 

The  turbidity  of  rivers  is  greatest  after  heavy  rains. 
The  river  overflows  and  is  able  to  carry  the  softer  soil 
on  the  banks  along  with  it. 

Lake  Water. 

Lake  water  is  generally  free  from  suspended  mat- 
ter because  the  still  water  allows  all  insoluble  matter 
to  settle  to  the  bottom.  Lake  water  contains  dissolved 
mineral  matter. 

Feed- water. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  water  in 
nature  can  not  be  absolutely  pure.  The  questions 
which  determine  the  utility  of  any  water  are : 


4 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


1.  What  impurities  does  the  water  contain? 

2.  What  proportion  of  the  impurities  does  it  con- 
tain? 

3.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  impurities? 

4.  How  can  these  impurities  be  regulated? 

This  is  in  addition  to  the  question  of  supply. 

It  is  absolutely  essential  to  know  these  facts  about 
the  feed- water.  Water  is  a deceptive  substance.  It 
may  appear  perfectly  clear,  have  no  offensive  odor, 
taste  or  color,  and  still  contain  enough  mineral  matter 
to  make  it  harmful. 

Good  water  is  as  essential  to  efficiency  as  good  coal. 
When  the  water  is  evaporated  in  the  boiler,  the  impur- 
ities remain  in  the  boiler.  Gradually  this  residue 
accumulates,  and  if  the  water  used  contains  certain 
impurities,  a solid  crust  forms  inside  the  boiler.  In 
course  of  time  this  crust  becomes  so  thick  that  there 
is  a loss  of  efficiency.  Sometimes  this  crust  can  not 
be  removed.  The  life  of  the  boiler  is  shortened  as  a 
result.  Certain  mineral  impurities  have  a corroding 
effect  and  cause  much  trouble. 

A practical  worker  may  determine  the  nature  of  the 
impurities  in  his  feed-water  without  much  difficulty. 
The  only  apparatus  necessary  is  a few  test  tubes,  a 
burette  and  small  portions  of  some  simple  reagents. 
These  may  be  obtained  from  supply  houses  or,  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  from  a drug  store. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  in  determining  the 
nature  of  impurities,  degrees  of  hardness,  etc.,  very 
small  quantities  of  the  impurities  are  present  in  the 
water.  It  is  therefore  essential  that  great  care  should 
be  taken  in  obtaining  a fair  sample.  Any  foreign  mat- 
ter or  chemicals  which  come  into  contact  with  the 
sample  after  it  is  taken  will  often  change  the  results. 

Use  clean  glass  containers  for  collecting  the  sam- 
ples. Mason  jars,  such  as  are  used  for  canning  fruit, 
are  suitable.  Regular  gallon  water  bottles,  used  for 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


5 


distributing  drinking  water,  will  also  do  for  this  pur- 
pose. When  the  water  is  taken  from  a tap  or  pump, 
some  water  should  be  allowed  to  run  to  waste  first 
before  filling  the  sample  bottle.  This  insures  a fair 
sample,  but  if  water  which  has  been  standing  in  the 
pipes  is  used  the  results  will  not  be  reliable.  Simi- 
larly, when  taking  samples  from  a river  or  lake,  it  is 
well  to  sink  the  bottle  below  the  surface  before  remov- 
ing the  cork  or  cover,  in  order  to  obtain  samples  free 
from  the  top  scum.  After  filling  the  bottle  nearly  full 
it  should  be  well  corked  or  covered. 

The  Testing. 

After  the  samples  have  been  obtained,  the  next  step 
is  to  test  them. 

To  test  for  turbidity  in  a general  way,  proceed  as 


Fig.  i. 


6 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


follows.  After  shaking  the  bottle  well  to  diffuse  any 
sediment  which  may  have  formed,  pour  a little  into 
a test  tube.  Hold  the  test  tube,  half  filled,  up  to  a 
strong  light  and  look  for  suspended  matter.  If  you 
have  difficulty  in  finding  the  suspended  particles  or 
can  not  find  them  at  all,  the  water  may  be  regarded  as 
practically  free  from  turbidity.  When  these  particles 
are  very  evident  and  the  sample  has  a muddy  appear- 
ance, even  in  ordinary  light,  a high  turbidity  may  be 
inferred. 

Turbidity  can  be  accurately  measured.  It  is  ex- 
pressed as  equivalent  to  a certain  number  of  parts 
per  million  of  suspended  matter  of  a particular  fine- 
ness. While  this  would  scarcely  come  under  the  title 
of  “ Simple  Water  Testing,”  the  following  simple 
method  of  measuring  the  turbidity  will  be  found  suffi- 
ciently accurate  in  case  it  should  be  desired. 

A bright  new  pin  is  fastened  at  the  extremity  of  a 
meter-rod  or  yard-stick  and  the  stick  inserted  in  the 
water  (see  Fig.  1)  until  the  pin  can  just  be  seen.  The 
depth  of  the  pin  is  noted  from  the  stick,  and  by  refer- 
ence to  the  following  table  the  turbidity  may  be  deter- 
mined : 

Depth  of  Pin. 


^Turbidity. 

Millimeters. 

Inches. 

10 

794 

31.26 

15 

551 

21.69 

20 

426 

16.77 

30 

296 

11.65 

50 

187 

7.36 

75 

130 

5.12 

100 

100 

3.94 

150 

72 

2.83 

200 

57.4 

2.26 

300 

43.2 

1.70 

500 

30.9 

1.22 

1,000 

20.9 

.82 

* According  to  United  States  G.  S. 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


7 


Hardness. 

An  important  property  to  determine  is  the  hardness 
of  the  water.  Hardness  is  caused  by  the  presence  of 
bicarbonates,  sulphates,  chlorids,  or  nitrates  of  lime 
or  magnesia.  Waters  which  are  free  from  these  com- 
pounds are  “soft.”  Hardness  may  be  caused  by  a 
combination  of  several  forms  of  the  lime  and  magnesia. 

Hardness  which  is  caused  by  the  presence  of  bicar- 
bonates of  lime  or  magnesia  is  only  temporary  hardness. 
Waters  of  temporary  hardness  are  particularly  impor- 
tant with  respect  to  boilers.  When  the  water  of  tem- 
porary hardness  is  boiled,  the  heat  drives  the  combined 
carbonic  acid  off  and  leaves  a solid  residue  which  falls 
to  the  bottom  of  the  container. 

The  sulphates,  chlorids,  or  nitrates  or  combina- 
tions of  the  lime  or  magnesia  cause  the  water  to  be 
permanently  hard.  Permanent  hardness  of  waters  is 
another  important  property  of  water  which  has  to  be 
regulated  for  use  in  boilers.  Permanent  hardness  can 
be  removed  by  chemical  treatment  or  by  distillation. 


8 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Determination  of  Hardness. 

There  are  two  reliable  tests  for  hard  waters.  They 
are  known  as  the  “ Soap  test  ” and  the  “ Acid  test.” 
Both  are  simple  and  the  results  are  available  in  a few 
minutes.  Briefly,  they  consist  in  taking  an  exact 
measured  volume  of  water  or  solution  of  unknown 
strength  and  adding  to  this  an  exactly  measured  vol- 
ume of  reagents  of  known  strength.  The  indication 
is  given  by  a change  of  color  or  other  visible  means, 
after  the  correct  amount  of  the  reagent  has  been  added. 
This  method  is  called  the  volumetric  test,  i.  e.,  by 
volume  instead  of  weight. 

The  Soap  Test. 

The  soap  test  depends  upon  the  fact  that  lime  and 
magnesia  compounds  destroy  soap  in  a proportionate 
quantity  to  the  amount  .of  the  compounds.  In  other 
words,  the  lime  and  magnesium  salts  combine  with 
the  fats  of  the  soap,  and  an  insoluble  compound  which 
can  not  make  a lather  is  formed.  When  the  mixture 
is  shaken  no  lasting  lather  or  foam  can  form  unless 
there  is  a greater  quantity  of  soluble  soap  than  the 
given  lime  and  magnesium  compounds  can  destroy. 

The  hardness  of  water  is  measured  in  “ degrees 
Clark,”  or  “ degrees  Frankland.”  In  Clark  degrees 
each  degree  corresponds  to  one  grain  of  carbonate  of 
lime  in  each  gallon  of  water.  In  Frankland  degrees, 
each  degree  corresponds  to  one  part  of  carbonate  of 
lime  per  100,000.  Since  a gallon  of  water  contains 
70,000  grains,  a Clark  degree  means  one  part  in  70,000. 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


9 


Thus,  Frankland  degrees  give  figures  which  are  greater 
than  when  Clark  degrees  are  used,  in  the  ratio  of  10  to 
7.  For  Clark  degrees  the  quantity  of  water  which  is 
tested  is  70  cubic  centimeters.  This  is  approximately 
Yio  of  a gallon.  For  Frankland  degrees  the  quantity  of 
water  tested  is  100  cubic  centimeters.  The  method  in 
each  case  is  practically  the  same.  The  results  can  be 
changed  from  Clark  degrees  to  Frankland  degrees,  or 
vice  versa,  by  multiplying  the  results  by  Vio  or  10A  as 
the  case  may  be. 

Method. 

Into  a clean  bottle  put  70  cubic  centimeters  of  the 
water  to  be  tested.  A half-pint  glass  bottle  is  desir- 
able for  this  purpose.  The  water  is  measured  out  by 
means  of  a burette  (see  Fig.  2).  This  is  a graduated 
tube  open  at  the  top  and  also  at  the  bottom  ends.  It 
is  marked  off  in  cubic  centimeters  and  usually  has  sub- 
divisions. The  bottom  end  is  conical  and  has  a piece 
of  rubber  tubing  slipped  over  it.  This  tubing  is  closed 
by  a pinch  cock  or  a spring  clip.  After  obtaining  the 
70  cc.  of  water  empty  the  burette. 

Prepare  a soap  solution  as  follows : 

Put  1 dram  (%  ounce)  of  shaved  castile  soap  into 
a mixture  of  alcohol  and  water  (y2  pint  of  spirit  to 
pint  of  water).  Shake  it  well,  and  let  it  stand  for  a 
time.  It  should  be  filtered  through  filter  or  blotting 
paper.  Now,  if  exact  results  are  not  desired  this  solu- 
tion may  be  used  as  it  is,  but  for  more  accurate  results 
it  must  be  standardized.  This  is  done  by  testing  its 
strength  by  means  of  water  of  known  hardness.  The 
solution  is  then  gradually  diluted  with  alcohol  and 
water  in  the  above  proportions  until  the  strength  is 
exactly  right.  This  can  be  done  by  making  up  a water 
of  definite  hardness  with  lime  water  and  sulphuric 
acid,  and  then  experimenting  until  the  right  strength 
is  found. 


10 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


For  this  checking  of  the  soap  solution  make  up  the 
following  test  solution : 

1.  Lime  Water. — Slake  two  ounces  of  quicklime 
by  adding  a little  water.  When  cold,  put  it  in  a bottle 


Fig.  2. 

A BURETTE. 


with  a quart  of  cold  water  and  shake  well.  Let  the 
lime  settle,  and  filter  through  filter  paper  or  blotting 
paper.  Put  in  a clean  well-stoppered  bottle. 

2.  Standard  Sulphuric  Acid. — Dilute  a very  small 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


11 


quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  with  a large  quantity  of 
water  until  11  y2  cc.  of  the  dilute  acid  will  neutralize 
5 cc.  of  solution  1.  This  will  also  be  used  later  for  the 
“ Acid  Test,”  so  it  should  be  saved  in  a stoppered 
bottle.  Red  litmus  paper  can  be  used  for  the  indicator, 
but  if  phenolphthalein  can  be  obtained  it  will  be  easier 
to  use  and  also  more  sensitive. 

Litmus  paper  comes  in  little  book  packets.  Phe- 
nolphthalein comes  as  little  white  grains.  Before  it 
can  be  used  it  must  be  dissolved  in  alcohol  (about  10 
grains  to  pint).  One  drop  of  the  phenolphthalein 
solution  suffices  to  show  the  pink  color.  When  there 
is  more  acid  than  alkali  the  color  is  instantly  removed. 
If  red  litmus  paper  is  used,  the  lime  water  turns  it  to 
blue  at  first.  When  enough  acid  has  been  added  (i.  e., 
when  the  solution  is  neutralized),  the  color  will  be  a 
light  purple.  Too  much  acid  will  turn  the  paper  red 
again. 

3.  The  standard  water  is  made  by  taking  the  neu- 
tralized solution  (5  cc.  of  lime  and  11J4  cc.  of  acid) 
and  diluting  it  with  distilled  water  until  it  makes  70  cc. 
(using  the  burette).  This  standard  water,  if  made 
according  to  directions,  should  be  11 degrees  (Clark) 
hard.  This  means  that  if  the  soap  solution  previously 
prepared  is  standard,  this  standard  water  of  11^4 
degrees  hardness  will  destroy  a like  quantity  of  the 
soap  solution. 

The  Operation. 

Before  testing  the  sample  of  water,  the  soap  solu- 
tion must  be  tested  and  standardized  as  was  just 
directed.  Fill  up  the  burette  with  the  soap  solution. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  the  liquid  does  not  show  a level 
surface,  but  is  concave.  In  reading  from  the  burette 
the  lower  curved  line  of  the  concave  should  be  made 
to  coincide  with  the  graduation  marks.  This  precau- 
tion should  be  observed  in  filling  the  burette,  also. 
The  reading  is  facilitated  by  holding  a strip  of  white 


12 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


paper  behind  the  burette  at  the  surface  of  the  liquid. 
Now  to  the  70  cc.  of  standard  water  gradually  add 
the  soap  solution  from  the  burette  by  squeezing  the 
rubber  tube.  A slight  lather  may  form  as  the  bottle  is 
shaken  from  time  to  time,  but  the  bubbles  will  not  last 
if  the  proportion  of  salts  in  the  water  is  greater  than 
the  soap  which  is  added.  More  soap  is  added  and  the 
bottle  is  shaken  after  each  addition.  Continue  until  a 
lather  is  formed  which  will  last  for  several  minutes. 
The  number  of  cubic  centimeters,  less  one,  of  the  soap 
solution  added,  indicates  the  hardness  of  the  water  in 
degrees  (Clark).  The  one  degree  is  deducted  because 
distilled  water  which  has  a O hardness  requires  this 
slight  quantity  of  soap  to  make  it  lather.  It  will  be 
seen  that  12^4  cc.  should  have  been  required  for  this 
standard  water.  If  the  soap  solution  is  too  strong  it 
must  be  diluted  until  this  is  the  case. 

Having  standardized  the  soap  solution,  the  sample 
of  the  water  of  unknown  hardness  is  then  tested  in 
much  the  same  manner.  For  the  best  results,  only  one 
cubic  centimeter  of  soap  solution  should  be  added  at  a 
time.  If  no  lather  forms,  then  another  cubic  centi- 
meter is  added,  and  again,  and  again.  When  a tem- 
porary lather  begins  to  form,  the  quantity  added  each 
time  should  be  less,  as  or  ^ 1S  important 

to  find  the  point  at  which  a permanent  lather  is  found. 
When  the  approximate  point  is  reached,  shake  the 
bottle  briskly  and  then  let  it  stand  for  five  minutes.  If 
at  the  end  of  this  time  a lather  remains,  even  though 
it  may  be  less  in  volume,  the  lather  is  permanent  as  far 
as  the  test  is  concerned.  This  may  also  be  decided  by 
listening  to  the  breaking  of  the  bubbles.  Let  the  bottle 
stand  for  ten  seconds  after  shaking  it.  Then  listen  to 
the  bubbles.  If  they  break  with  a hissing  sound,  more 
soap  is  needed.  As  soap  is  added  the  sound  becomes 
less  audible  each  time.  When  a permanent  lather  is 
reached  there  should  be  no  sound  at  all. 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


13 


Several  tests  should  be  made.  They  may  not  all 
agree,  but  a good  average  can  be  found.  A good  plan 
is  to  test  the  water  undiluted  at  first  and  then  to  repeat 
after  diluting  it  with  an  equal  quantity  of  freshly  dis- 
tilled water.  When  the  two  tests  correspond,  the 
water  contains  almost  entirely  lime  compounds.  When 
there  are  a few  grains  of  magnesian  salts  present,  the 
diluted  water  will  show  more  hardness  proportionally 
than  the  undiluted  water. 

Indeed,  lime  and  magnesia  behave  differently  in 
the  soap  test.  When  the  water  contains  lime  alone  the 
reaction  between  it  and  the  soap  is  instantaneous. 
When  magnesia  as  well  as  lime  is  present,  the  reaction 
requires  some  time.  A water  which  is  10  degrees  hard 
and  having  5 due  to  lime  and  5 to  magnesia,  will  lather 
after  only  6 or  7 cc.  of  soap  have  been  added.  After 
waiting  three  minutes  the  bubbles  break  up.  No 
amount  of  shaking  will  produce  them  permanently 
again  until  the  remaining  amount  of  soap  is  added. 
Whenever  this  peculiarity  is  noted  the  presence  of 
magnesia  is  indicated  and  its  proportion  may  be 
roughly  inferred.  Whenever  magnesia  is  present  in 
any  quantity  the  soap  test  is  less  reliable  for  these 
reasons.  Again,  equal  quantities  of  lime  and  magnesia 
will  not  each  destroy  the  same  amount  of  soap.  Mag- 
nesia destroys  almost  1%  as  much  as  a like  amount  of 
lime. 

Remarks. 

When  water  contains  vegetable  matter  it  has  a 
tendency  to  froth.  This  interferes  but  little,  however. 

Some  waters  form  a scum  instead  of  a lather,  at 
first.  This  scum  contains  imprisoned  air,  lasts  a long 
time,  and  is  very  deceiving.  It  can  not  be  heard  and 
appears  like  a genuine  lather.  There  is  a way  to  deter- 
mine the  difference.  The  water  below  the  scum  will 
be  found  to  be  nearly  clear,  while  in  the  case  of  genu- 
ine lather  in  hard  water  the  water  becomes  milky 


14 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


before  the  lather  is.  formed.  Water  containing  car- 
bonates  acts  in  this  way. 

Distilled  water  which  is  used  should  be  fresh. 

It  is  apparent  that  there  are  many  chances  for  in- 
accuracies in  the*  soap  test.  It  does  not  take  as  long 
to  test  as  it  does  to  describe  the  operations.  In  gen- 
eral it  is  quite  satisfactory.  It  does  not  distinguish' 
between  permanent  and  temporary  hardness. 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


15 


CHAPTER  III. 

The  Acid  Test. 

The  temporary  hardness  of  water  is  tested  by  the 
acid  test.  The  hardness  is  determined  by  testing  its 
alkalinity  with  acid.  In  general  the  test  is  reliable  and 
simple. 

The  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia  which  cause 
the  temporary  hardness  of  the  water  are  weak  alkalies. 
The  amount  of  these  carbonates  present  is  found  by 
neutralizing  a known  quantity  of  the  water  with  a 
standard  solution  of  weak  acid.  Methyl  orange  is 
used  as  the  indicator. 

Methyl  Orange. — This  indicator  is  a pale  lemon- 
yellow  color  in  alkaline  liquids.  It  is  used  in  the  acid 
test  because  carbonic  acid  does  not  affect  its  color.  It 
is  also  a sensitive  indicator.  It  keeps  its  yellow  color 
as  the  acid  is  added  until  the  exact  point  is  reached  at 
which  the  carbonates  have  been  changed  into  sulphids, 
that  is,  the  point  at  which  the  carbonates  present  are 
neutralized.  The  color  then  becomes  a pale  orange. 
As  excess  acid  is  added  the  color  becomes  pink,  the 
shade  varying  according  to  the  amount  of  excess  acid 
used. 

Method. — Use  the  standard  acid  solution,  prepared 
as  directed.  The  hardness  due  to  the  carbonates  of 
lime  and  magnesia  is  indicated  by  the  number  of  cubic 
centimeters  of  acid  necessary  to  neutralize  the  seventy 
cubic  centimeters  of  water,  as  in  the  soap  test. 

The  methyl-orange  indicator  is  made  up  by  dis- 
solving six  or  seven  grains  in  a pint  of  distilled  water. 

Measure  out  the  seventy  cc.  of  the  water  to  be 


16 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


tested,  taking  all  the  precautions  as  in  the  soap  test. 
Add  only  one  drop  of  the  methyl-orange  solution. 

Fill  up  the  burette  with  the  standard  acid  solution. 
Add  small  quantities  of  the  acid  until  the  pale  yellow 
color  changes  to  orange.  This  change  from  yellow  to 
orange  or  pink  is  only  clearly  visible  in  daylight.  If  it 
is  necessary  to  work  by  artificial  light  add  an  extra 
drop  of  the  indicator.  The  color  change  can  be  seen  by 
holding  the  vessel  containing  the  water  in  front  of  a 
sheet  of  white  paper.  Each  cc.  of  the  acid  used  neu- 
tralizes one  milligram  of  the  carbonate.  The  hardness 
is  thus  found  directly. 

Remarks. — Some  waters  contain  carbonate  of  soda. 
This  impurity  is  an  alkali  but  it  does  not  cause  hard- 
ness. The  alkalinity  as  measured  by  the  acid  test  will 
be  greater  than  the  actual  hardness. 

This  completes  the  “ hardness  ” tests.  Several 
trials  should  be  made  and  compared.  The  tests  should 
be  repeated  about  once  in  every  two  months.  The 
results  will  vary  at  different  times  of  the  year.  The 
tests  for  hardness  form  the  most  important  tests  and 
in  many  cases  are  all  that  are  necessary.  The  soap  test 
determined  the  permanent  hardness  or  the  proportion 
of  sulphates,  chlorids,  and  nitrates.  The  acid  test 
determined  the  proportion  of  bicarbonates.  For  com- 
parison it  is  well  to  test  both  boiled  and  unboiled 
samples  of  the  same  water.  If  there  is  much  carbonic 
acid  in  the  water  the  results  will  vary  widely.  The 
boiling  of  the  water  in  this  case  drives  off  the  com- 
bined carbonic  acid  and  leaves  the  water  softer.  The 
difference  between  the  hardness  found  for  the  unboiled 
sample  and  the  boiled  sample  will  give  a fair  indication 
of  the  temporary  hardness. 

Permissible  Hardness. — The  question  will  arise  as 
to  what  degree  of  hardness  is  permissible  for  steam 
purposes.  It  is  certain  that  the  softer  the  water  is  the 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


17 


better  it  will  be  for  this  use.  We  might  take  a con- 
crete example. 

Suppose  the  water  is  found  to  have  a total  hardness 
of  fifteen  degrees.  Suppose  further  that  it  is  proposed 
to  use  this  water  in  the  boilers  for  a two  hundred 
horse-power  engine  without  in  any  way  treating  the 
water.  It  is  difficult  to  understand  how  such  a few 
grains  of  solid  matter  as  this  particular  water  contains 
could  amount  to  any  troublesome  quantity. 

Suppose  that  each  day  some  six  thousand  gallons 
of  water  will  be  evaporated  in  the  boilers.  Now,  if 
each  gallon  of  water  contains  fifteen  grains  of  lime 
salts,  there  will  be  some  twelve  pounds  of  deposit  or 
scale  in  one  day,  as  follows  : 

6,000  gallons  water. 

15  (15  grains  of  salts  to  1 gallon). 


90,000  (total  weight  of  residue  in  grains). 
Since  there  are  7,680  grains  to  the  pound 

7680)90,000  ( 11.7  + 

7680  ^ 

13200 

7680 


55200 

53760 


1540 

In  one  month  of  twenty-six  days  this  would  amount 
to  304.2  pounds. 

At  this  same  rate  almost  two  tons  would  be  de- 
posited in  one  year.  These  figures  do  not  take  into 
account  any  suspended  organic  or  other  particles. 

This  deposit  will  stay  in  the  boiler  until  it  is  re- 


18 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


moved.  Approximately  one-half  of  the  total  deposit 
will  form  a hard  scale.  The  operating  engineer  is  well 
aware  of  this  hard  scale.  He  finds  it  on  furnace  flues, 
fire  tubes,  and  circulating  tubes.  Aside  from  the  corro- 
sion of  the  metal,  a considerable  heat  loss  results.  The 
crust  which  forms  inside  the  boiler  is  a poor  heat  con- 
ductor. A noticeable  waste  of  fuel  often  results.  Then 
there  is  the  trouble  necessary  in  cleaning  out  the 
boilers.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  scale  always  ruins 
boilers.  Indeed,  in  some  cases  explosions  have  been 
caused  by  the  continual  formation  of  scale.  The  scale 
will  sometimes  crack,  breaking  away  from  the  iron. 
The  metal  may  be  unable  to  withstand  the  sudden 
pressure  and  temperature  increase  and  will  give  way. 
Flue  plates  especially  are  eaten  away  on  account  of 
scale.* 

Acid  Waters.—  Occasionally  it  will  be  found  that 
a water  supply  is  acid.  Such  waters  have  a marked 
corrosive  effect  on  the  boilers.  To  test  for  acidity  a 
small  sample  should  be  taken  of  the  water  which  is  in 
the  boiler,  as  well  as  a sample  before  the  water  reaches 
the  boiler. 

Method. — Take  a sample  in  a test  tube  from  the 
gauge  cock.  Let  it  cool,  and  test  for  acidity  with  the 
phenolphthalein  solution.  Repeat  for  comparison, 
using  very  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  (Standard  acid  solu- 
tion diluted  four  times.)  Test  the  sample  of  water 
which  has  not  entered  the  boiler  in  the  same  way.  The 
acid  is  seldom  found  in  injurious  amounts.  The  acids 
present  are  usually  organic  acids  and  will  be  noticed 
more  in  small  streams  into  which  much  refuse  is 
thrown. 

The  Test  for  Chlorids. — One  of  the  factors  which 
causes  hardness  is  the  presence  of  chlorids  in  water. 


* For  the  care  and  management  of  boilers,  see  Chapter  7,  Volume  1,  “ Sta- 
tionary Engineering,”  by  Mr.  Branch. 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


19 


If  present  in  any  large  proportion,  the  water  will 
surely  form  scale.  In  the  tests  for  hardness  the 
proportion  of  chlorids  together  with  sulphates  and 
nitrates  has  already  been  ascertained.  The  exact  pro- 
portion of  chlorids  can  be  found  by  a tedious  process 
which  also  requires  some  special  apparatus,  but  it  is 
omitted  here.  The  test  for  chlorids  depends  upon  the 
fact  that  when  a solution  of  silver  nitrate  is  added  to  a 
solution  of  the  chlorid,  a white,  curdy  precipitate  of 
silver  chlorid  is  formed. 

Method. — Dissolve  a few  crystals  in  distilled  water. 
Silver  nitrate  is  a white  crystalline  solid. 

Make  a very  dilute  solution  of  salt  and  water,  using 
ordinary  table  salt.  (Sodium  chlorid.) 

Fill  a test  tube  one-third  full  of  the  salt  solution. 
Pour  a little  of  the  silver  nitrate  solution  over  it.  A 
white  precipitate  is  formed. 

Repeat,  using  a sample  of  the  water  to  be  tested  in 
the  test  tube.  If  chlorids  are  present  the  precipitate 
should  appear.  If  there  is  only  a very  minute  quantity 
of  chlorids  in  the  water,  the  precipitate  may  not  show, 
but  ordinarily  the  water  will  cloud  slightly. 

Note. — In  making  up  the  solutions  always  filter 
same  before  using,  unless  otherwise  directed. 

The  Test  for  Sulphates. — Sulphates  form  one  of 
the  most  common  impurities  in  water.  They  always 
cause  hardness,  and  water  containing  them  always 
forms  scale  in  boilers.  Their  proportion  together  with 
chlorids  and  nitrates  (taking  for  granted  that  the 
water  contains  the  three),  is  found  by  the  tests  for 
hardness.  Like  the  chlorids,  their  independent  pro- 
portion can  be  found  by  laborious  methods  with  special 
apparatus.  The  test  for  sulphates  depends  on  the  fact 
that  when  a solution  of  barium  chlorid  is  added  to  a 
solution  of  sulphate,  a white,  insoluble  precipitate  of 
barium  sulphate  forms. 


20 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


Method. — Prepare  a solution  of  barium  chlorid 
and  water.  (See  method  under  “ Chlorids.”)  Make  a 
dilute  solution  of  sodium  sulphate  for  comparison. 
Fill  a test  tube  one-third  full  with  the  sodium  sulphate 
solution  and  add  some  of  the  barium  chlorid  solution 
to  it.  The  precipitate  should  at  once  appear. 

Repeat,  using  the  sample  of  water  to  be  tested.  If 
sulphates  are  present  the  water  should  turn  milky  or 
cloudy. 

Nitrates  or  nitrites  are  tested  for  on  account  of 
their  importance  to  drinking  water.  They  are  unim- 
portant with  reference  to  water  for  steam  purposes. 
Nitrate  of  lime  may  sometimes  occur  in  water. 

Carbonate  of  Iron. — Carbonate  of  iron  is  liable  to 
occur,  especially  when  some  waters  stand  in  iron  pipes 
for  considerable  time.  It  can  be  tested  for  in  much 
the  same  way  as  was  used  for  the  chlorids  and 
sulphates,  using  potassium  ferrocyanid,  prepared  in 
a solution.  It  is  seldom  that  enough  of  the  iron  car- 
bonate is  present  to  show. 

Iron  Tests. 

If  a solution  of  potassium  ferricyanid  is  made  up 
with  distilled  water  and  used  as  before  described,  a 
blue  precipitate  forms  which  colors  the  dilute  solution 
blue. 

A Delicate  Test; — Take  a small  sample  of  the 
water,  add  a little  pure  hydrochloric  acid  to  it  and  then 
add  a little  solution  of  potassium  sulphocyanate.  A 
red  color  or  pink  in  dilute  solutions  is  an  indication 
of  iron.  These  are  good  tests  for  iron.  One  or  all 
may  be  tried,  but  the  last  one  will  generally  serve  the 
purpose. 

Calcium  or  lime  is  sure  to  be  present  in  feed-waters. 
This  may  be  proved  by  adding  a solution  of  ammonium 
oxalate  in  distilled  water  to  a small  sample.  The  lime 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


21 


is  indicated  by  a white  precipitate,  or  in  a dilute  solu- 
tion the  sample  becomes  milky  when  treated  with  the 
ammonium  oxalate. 

This  will  complete  the  simple  chemical  tests  as  far 
as  water  for  steam  purposes  is  concerned.  Several 
trials  should  be  made  for  comparison.  Any  one  water 
will  not  necessarily  contain  all  of  the  impurities  which 
have  been  mentioned,  or  again,  some  may  contain 
more. 

Having  definitely  determined  the  general  nature 
and  proportion  of  the  impurities,  it  will  be  desirable  to 
know  what  these  impurities  are  likely  to  do  when  the 
water  is  used  in  the  boiler,  and  also  how  the  water 
may  be  treated  to  overcome  the  ill  effects  of  the  im- 
purities. 


22 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


Regulation  and  Purification. 

The  Report. 

It  may  be  desirable  to  keep  a report  of  the  results, 
especially  if  it  is  required  by  the  employers.  It  is  a 
good  plan  to  do  this  in  an  orderly  manner.  An  outline 
is  shown  in  the  illustration,  Fig.  3.  If  this  plan  is 
followed  out,  the  report  should  be  dated  and  signed. 
The  remarks  may  include  any  items  which  are  not 
expressly  provided  for. 

ANALYSIS  OF  FEED-WATER. 

FORM  FOR  REPORT  OF  WATER  ANALYSIS. 

Sample  

Date  taken  

Conditions  


Date  tested 


Turbidity  

Hardness  (Permanent) 
Hardness  (Temporary) 
Remarks  


Results. 


Acid  present  .... 

Chlorids  

Sulphates  

Carbonate  of  iron 
Remarks  


Signed 


Fig.  3. 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING.  23 


Fig.  4. 

SECTIONAL  VIEW  OF  THE  WEBSTER  EXHAUST  STEAM  FEED-WATER 
HEATER  AND  PURIFIER. 


24 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


Effects  of  the  Impurities. 

Having  determined  the  probable  composition  of 
the  water,  it  is  desirable  to  learn  what  effects  the 
indicated  impurities  are  liable  to  have  on  the  boiler. 
The  first  item  is  the  suspended  matter,  which  should 
always  be  removed  before  the  water  enters  the  boiler. 
A good  method  is  to  use  a feed-water  heater  and  puri- 
fier. One  of  these  heaters  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  4. 
Besides  removing  the  suspended  matter  these  heaters 
also  remove  some  of  the  impurities  which  are  dissolved 
in  the  water.  The  substances  which  are  dissolved  in 
water  at  ordinary  temperatures  are  precipitated  when 
the  solution  is  heated  enough.  To  understand  this 
better,  try  this  experiment.  Make  a clear  solution  of 
lime  water  by  dissolving  a little  slaked  lime  in  water 
and  filtering.  Fill  a test  tube  half  full  with  this  solu- 
tion and  heat  in  a flame.  The  precipitate  will  then 
form. 

This  is  what  takes  place  in  part  in  one  of  these 
heaters. 

Acids.  Organic  Acids.  Organic  Matter. 

If  the  tests  show  any  acid  to  be  present,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  neutralize  the  water  with  an  alkali.  The 
acids  are  bad  for  the  boiler  because  they  corrode  iron. 
The  remedy  is  to  neutralize  the  water  with  small  quan- 
tities of  carbonate  of  soda  or  carbonate  of  lime.  These 
reagents  are  added  to  the  water,  but  it  is  rarely  that 
water  is  found  which  is  acid  enough  to  require  special 
attention.  The  reagents  used  for  the  other  impurities 
usually  take  care  of  any  acid  that  is  present  at  the 
same  time. 

Organic  matter  is  removed  in  the  same  way  as 
that  of  mineral  matter  suspended  in  the  water.  Much 
organic  matter  would  do  no  harm  in  a boiler  and  might 
even  do  some  good.  It  has  the  good  properties  of 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


25 


keeping  the  scale  which  tends  to  form  from  other  im- 
purities, in  a soft  removable  form. 

Dissolved  Mineral  Salts. 

The  dissolved  salts  in  the  water  (as  indicated  in 
the  hardness  and  special  test)  may  concentrate  to  form 
a mineral  deposit.  The  usual  effect  is  the  precipitates 
which  result  from  the  high  temperature.  Lime  salts 
are  a good  example  of  this.  At  an  ordinary  tem- 
perature of  60-70°  F.  they  are  soluble,  but  at  a tem- 
perature of  300°  they  are  not.  The  ordinary  forms 
(carbonate  and  bicarbonate)  are  precipitated  at  212°, 
which  is  the  boiling  point  of  water.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  these  particular  impurities  may  be  removed 
by  the  feed-water  heater  and  purifier.  To  remove  the 
substance  sulphate  of  lime  by  this  method  it  requires 
pressure  as  well  as  the  temperature  of  boiling  water. 
The  full  boiler  pressure  is  used,  and  the  water  has  to  be 
pumped  into  the  heater. 

Carbonates. 

The  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia  form  a scale 
in  the  boiler  only  when  they  are  not  kept  in  circula- 
tion and  are  heated  strongly.  This  might  occur  if  the 
boiler  were  emptied  while  hot. 

Sulphate  of  Lime. 

This  substance  always  causes  scale.  The  hardness 
of  the  scale  which  it  causes  may  vary  according  to 
temperature,  or  the  other  impurities  that  are  present. 
It  is  very  desirable  to  remove  this  impurity. 

The  carbonates  and  bicarbonates  of  magnesia  be- 
have in  the  same  way  as  the  corresponding  lime  salts. 

Boiler  Precipitates. 

Scale. — As  has  been  pointed  out,  the  sulphate  of 
lime  is  soluble  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  insoluble 
at  a temperature  formed  by  steam  under  pressure.  As 


26 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


Fig.  5. 

PITMARKS  ON  SECTION  OF  BOILER  TUBE. 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


27 


a result,  any  water  which  is  forced  into  the  boiler  and 
contains  this  substance,  will  lose  it  by  precipitation. 

The  precipitate  of  sulphate  of  lime  is  a heavy,  com- 
pact crystalline  solid.  On  account  of  these  properties 
it  settles  rapidly,  forming  a hard  scale.  Any  one  who 
has  ever  tried  to  remove  this  kind  of  scale  will  vouch 
for  its  hardness. 

Unlike  the  sulphate,  the  carbonates  are  light  and 
settle  slowly.  If  no  sulphate  were  present  at  the  same 
time,  these  last  would  always  form  a soft  scale,  but 
when  combined  with  the  sulphate,  a hard  scale  results. 

In  general,  a precipate  always  tends  to  stick  to  the 
sides  of  the  vessel  or  boiler.  Ordinarily,  precipitated 
particles  do  not  cohere  to  each  other,'  but  lie  in  a state 
of  suspension.  The  particles  will  not  usually  adhere 
to  the  other  matter  in  the  water,  but  a group  of  the 
loose  crystals  may  be  joined  to  form  one  large  crystal 
by  the  addition  of  other  crystals. 

If  the  soap  test  showed  the  water  to  be  over  eight 
degrees  hard,  the  water  is  pretty  sure  to  give  con- 
siderable scale  in  the  manner  just  outlined.  In  tube 
boilers  the  scale  forms  on  the  inside  of  the  tubes.  If 
the  deposit  is  soft  and  loose  it  is  readily  removed  by 
blowing.  When  any  of  the  deposit  once  sticks  to  the 
tube  it  can  be  removed  only  with  difficulty.  This  last 
kind  of  scale  is  removed  only  after  considerable  manual 
labor  is  expended.  Even  then  it  is  seldom  that  all  can 
be  removed.  At  any  rate  it  is  poor  policy  to  wait 
until  the  scale  forms  and  then  to  remove  it,  as  a 
remedy  for  the  trouble.  The  better  way  is  to  either 
purify  or  soften  the  water. 

Calcium  Chlorid. — Unlike  the  sulphate  of  lime, 
it  is  very  soluble.  It  does  not  cause  any  deposit  or 
crust  alone.  It  may  be  removed  the  same  as  the  lime 
sulphate  and  requires  no  special  attention  in  most 
cases.  When  sulphate  of  magnesia  is  present,  it  may 


28 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


cause  hard  scale  by  decomposing  the  sulphate,  making 
sulphate  of  lime  and  chlorid  of  magnesia.  The  latter 
would  be  very  corrosive  and  corrode  the  iron  plates. 

Nitrate  of  Lime. — This  is  rarely  found  in  feed- 
waters.  Like  the  sulphate  and  chlorid  of  lime,  car- 
bonate of  soda  will  take  care  of  it. 

Carbonate  of  Magnesia. — This  compound  resembles 
the  corresponding  lime  salt.  (See  Carbonates.) 

Sulphate  of  Magnesia. — This  compound  is  very 
soluble.  Like  calcium  chlorid,  it  does  not  form  scale 
itself.  It  is  not  corrosive.  In  the  presence  of  other 
salts  it  is  objectionable  because  it  tends  to  prevent  the 
efficient  treatment  of  the  other  salts.  (Soda  will  de- 
compose the  sulphate  of  magnesia.) 

Chlorid  of  Magnesium. — This  needs  no  special  at- 
tention. It  is  removed  in  the  same  manner  as  sulphate 
of  magnesia.  It  is  very  soluble  and  will  form  no  scale 
alone.  It  is,  however,  very  corrosive.  On  coming  into 
contact  with  the  iron  plates,  the  free  chlorin  which 
results  attacks  and  corrodes  the  metal.  Softening  by 
the  use  of  soda,  prevents  this  corrosive  action.  The 
soda  combines  with  the  chlorin  to  form  common  salt. 

Carbonate  of  Iron. — Iron  salts  in  solution  are  un- 
stable and  absorb  oxygen.  The  resulting  iron  oxid  is 
insoluble  and  deposits  as  a red  rust. 

Silica. — Most  waters  contain  a trace  of  silica.  It  is 
unimportant  in  the  consideration  of  feed-waters. 

All  of  the  soluble  impurities  in  water  are  constantly 
concentrated  in  the  boiler  by  the  evaporation  of  the 
water  in  the  formation  of  steam.  The  steam  itself  as 
it  leaves  the  boiler  is  practically  pure  water.  The 
impurities  are  thus  left  in  the  boiler  to  concentrate 
and  accumulate,  forming  scale  and  corroding  the  iron. 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


29 


Fig.  7. 

SHOWING  OLD  SCALB  RECEMENTED  TO  BOILER  BY  SCALE-FORMING 
MATTER  IN  THE  BOILER. 


30 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


The  Purification  of  Water. 

Ever  since  the  steam  boiler  was  invented,  men 
have  engaged  in  the  problem  of  purifying  the  feed- 
waters.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  it 
was  proposed  to  soften  hard  water  by  using  slaked 
lime.  Dr.  Clark  patented  his  “ Lime  Process,”  for 
softening  water  on  a commercial  scale  in  1841.  The 
soda  and  lime  process  was  invented  a little  later. 
These  processes  are  still  in  use  in  a modified  form,  at 
the  present  time.  The  following  processes  and  de- 
vices are  used  with  varying  results.  Some  are  very 
good  and  the  others  are  just  the  opposite.  As  far  as 
is  possible  the  list  is  arranged  in  the  order  of  efficiency. 
There  are  some  exceptions  in  the  latter  part  of  the  list, 
however. 

1.  Softening  and  purification  tank  systems. 

2.  Boiler  compounds. 

3.  Feed-water  heaters  and  purifiers. 

4.  Filtration. 

5.  Mechanical  boiler  cleaners. 

6.  Surface  blow-offs. 

Distillation  is  omitted  because  it  is  too  expensive 
to  be  practical. 

The  first  two  methods  are  entirely  chemical.  The 
remainder  are  largely  mechanical.  The  feed-water 
heaters  have  already  been  mentioned.  The  chief 
defect  of  this  method  is  that  the  action  is  incomplete. 
The  temporary  hardness  of  some  waters  may  be  almost 
entirely  removed  by  the  live-steam  heater.  The  per- 
manent hardness  can,  however,  only  be  partially  re- 
moved by  the  exhaust-steam  type  of  heater.  In  either 
case,  the  heater  itself  becomes  clogged  up  and  requires 
cleaning.  In  fact,  it  may  be  said  that  the  better  it  is 
as  a water  purifier,  the  worse  it  is  as  a heater. 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


31 


Chemical  Reagents. 

The  cheapest  and  best  method  of  treating  feed- 
water  is  the  chemical  method.  The  remedy  for  each 
special  impurity  has  already  been  outlined.  These 


Fig.  8. 

SHOWING  COLLECTION  OF  SCALE  IN  TUBE. 


Fig.  9. 

CORRODED  BOILER  TUBE. 

chemicals  may  be  used  in  either  of  the  ways  (1)  or 
(2).  The  chief  reagents  used  are  tabulated  below  with 
the  approximate  cost  of  each. 


32 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


Lime,  Y\  cent  per  pound. 

Caustic  soda,  2 cents  per  pound. 

Soda  ash  (sodium  carbonate),  1 cent  per  pound. 

Trisodium  phosphate,  4 cents  per  pound. 

Barium  chlorid,  2 cents  per  pound. 

Barium  hydrate,  4 cents  per  pound. 

Tannic  extract  (Com.),  2^4  cents  per  pound. 

Sugar,  6 cents  per  pound. 

‘Many  makers  of  boiler  compounds  use  acids  in 
addition  to  some  of  the  above-named  reagents. 

The  lime  and  soda  are  the  chief  reagents. 

Boiler  Compounds. 

A mixture  of  some  of  the  above-mentioned  reagents 
and  often  others  is  popularly  known  as  a boiler  com- 
pound. These  compounds  do  not  actually  remove  the 
impurities,  but  either  combine  with  them  to  form  a 
precipitate  or  change  them  into  insoluble  salts  that 
will  settle  and  can  be  easily  removed.  They  do  not 
keep  the  impurities  out  of  the  water,  but  are  intended 
to  make  them  harmless.  By  judicious  use  they  can  be 
made  effective  in  many  cases.  The  chief  object  is  to 
prevent  the  formation  of  scale  (hard  scale).  The 
reagents  used  are  designed  to  cause  a soft  deposit  to 
form  instead  of  a hard  one.  For  many  years  it  has 
been  a profitable  business  to  make  and  sell  various 
“ Ready-made  ” boiler  compounds.  A glance  at  the 
table  of  reagents  and  at  a budget  of  “ Compound 
Receipts  ” would  soon  show  this.  While  some  of  these 
compounds  are  questionable  there  are  many  which  are 
really  of  some  value.  The  chief  defect  is  that,  like 
patent  medicines,  one  compound  can  not  be  a cure  for 
every  boiler.  Like  medicine,  a special  compound  with 
the  ingredients  in  the  proper  proportions  must  be 
made  for  each  boiler.  By  chance  a ready-made  com- 
pound might  just  happen  to  be  right  for  a certain 
boiler,  but  the  chances  are  that  it  will  not  be.  The 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


33 


better  way  is  to  analyze  the  water  and  then  make  up 
the  compound  to  counteract  the  impurities  that  are 
found.  Tree  offers  are  sometimes  made,  but,  of  course, 
the  company  expects  to  furnish  the  compound  that  it 
advises.  If  used  too  sparingly  the  compound  can  not 
do  its  work  completely.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
used  in  excess,  foaming  and  wet  steam  are  likely  to 
result.  While  the  weighing  out  and  mixing  of  the 
compounds  can  be  done  by  an  inexperienced  person 
with  reasonable  care,  the  computation  of  the  correct 
proportions  involves  a knowledge  of  reactions  and 
chemical  arithmetic  which  few  operating  engineers 
have.  This  part  should  be  entrusted  to  a chemist  who 
has  specialized  in  water  purification.  A mistake  in  the 
proportions  could  easily  cause  much  waste  and  dam- 
age. 

In  general,  a compound  will  be  the  most  effective 
when  the  water  in  the  boiler  is  in  good  circulation. 
The  use  of  boiler  compounds  requires  the  frequent  use 
of  the  blow-off  valve. 


34 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


CHAPTER  V. 

Regulation  and  Purification. 

Defects  of  Boiler  Compounds. 

Under  the  heading  of  “ Boiler  Compounds/'  it  was 
pointed  out  that  one  compound  having  the  reagents  in 
a fixed  proportion  could  not  be  a cure  for  every  boiler. 
Again,  the  same  compound  would  not  be  as  effective 
with  a given  boiler  at  all  times  of  the  year  because  the 
proportion  of  the  impurities  in  the  water  varies.  To 
be  effective  it  is  necessary  that  the  compound  used 
should  contain  the  reagents  in  the  proper  proportion; 
and,  then,  that  the  compound  should  be  used  in  the 
proper  proportions.  Even  then  the  use  of  a compound 
can  not  be  entirely  satisfactory.  Since  the  compound  is 
applied  to  the  water  in  the  boiler  the  total  impurities  in 
the  boiler  water  are  increased.  The  constant  evapora- 
tion of  the  water  leaves  the  old  compound  as  well  as 
the  original  impurities  in  the  boiler.  While  a boiler 
compound  will  prevent  the  formation  of  hard  scale  to 
a large  extent,  and,  although  most  ready-made  mixtures 
will  prevent  corrosion,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
resulting  sludge  must  be  frequently  removed  from  the 
boiler  or  the  good  results  are  lost.  Of  course,  boiler 
compounds  containing  such  ingredients  as  potatoes, 
corn,  leather,  manure,  and  similar  starchy  or  gelatinous 
matter,  as  well  as  those  containing  organic  acids,  should 
be  avoided.  If  the  plant  is  a small  one  and  it  is  decided 
to  try  a ready-made  compound  the  maker  should  be 
required  to  say  what  the  compound  contains,  or,  at  least, 
certify  that  it  is  free  from  starchy,  gelatinous  and  acid 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


35 


matter.  Ready-made  compounds  are  not  to  be  com- 
mended. 

Softening  and  Purification  Tank  Systems. 

The  softening  and  purification  tank  systems  are, 
perhaps,  the  most  satisfactory  method  of  treating  feed- 
waters  which  have  so  far  been  devised.  Their  action  is 
chemical;  but,  unlike  boiler  compounds,  the  water  is 
treated  before  it  reaches  the  feed-water  heaters  and 
boilers.  In  these  systems  the  water  is  freed  from  its 
soluble  impurities  by  chemical  precipitation,  and  the 
corrosive  acids  neutralized  before  the  water  enters  the 
steam  plant.  There  are  two  classes  of  tank  systems 
which  are  used.  These  are  called  the  continuous  and 
the  intermittent,  respectively.  In  each  case  the  proper 
proportion  of  reagents  is  prepared  by  mechanical 
mixers  and  then  introduced  into  the  feed-water  in  large 
treating  tanks.  In  the  continuous  system  the  reagents 
are  introduced  into  the  water  in  proportion  to  the  flow 
of  the  water.  The  quantity  of  the  reagents  introduced 
into  the  water  must  be  changed  to  meet  the  variations 
in  the  water.  In  the  intermittent  system,  a definite 
quantity  of  water  is  treated  with  an  exact  quantity  of 
reagents,  time  being  allowed  for  sedimentation.  In 
some  intermittent  systems  the  reagents  are  introduced 
as  in  the  continuous  system,  but  while  the  water  is 
treated  in  one  tank,  it  flows  into  a settling  tank  or  tanks 
and  the  process  is  carried  on  alternately.  The  inter- 
mittent method  permits  accurate  treatment  regardless 
of  the  variations  in  the  source  of  supply  or  the  varia- 
tions in  the  rate  at  which  the  treated  water  is  used. 
The  continuous  method,  on  the  other  hand,  is  affected 
by  variations  in  both  the  supply  and  the  quantity  re- 
quired, and  when  wide  variations  occur,  accurate  treat- 
ment is  not  possible.  Since  only  accurate  treatment 
can  give  the  best  results,  the  intermittent  system  is  to 
be  preferred.  By  the  use  of  a good  tank  system  all 


Fig.  io. 

THE  WE-FU-GO  SYSTEM  — INTERMITTENT. 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


37 


corrosive  matter  is  removed  and  the  quantity  of  scale- 
forming impurities  in  the  water  is  reduced  to  the  min- 
imum. It  is  practically  impossible  to  remove  all  the 
soluble  impurities  from  the  water  because  even  calcium 
carbonate  and  magnesium  hydrate,  which  are  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  chemical  treatment,  are  slightly  soluble. 
The  sodium  salts  which  result  are  soluble ; and,  since 
they  are  introduced  to  effect  the  removal  of  the  other 
impurities,  they  are  always  present  in  treated  water. 
No  further  chemical  treatment  can  remove  the  sodium 
salts.  Fortunately,  sodium  salts  in  such  minute  quan- 
tities as  are  present  in  a properly  treated  water  are 
harmless  to  a boiler. 

The  Intermittent  System. 

A good  type  of  intermittent  tank  apparatus  is  shown 
in  Fig.  10  and  two  of  the  various  methods  of  installation 
are  shown  in  the  diagrams,  Figs.  11  and  12.  The  essen- 
tial parts  are  two  treating  and  settling  tanks,  having 
power-operated  stirring  devices,  and  a jet  or  pump  for 


38 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


THE  WE-FU-GO  SYSTEM  — WITH  PUMP  SUPPLYING  OPEN  HEATER. 

introducing  reagents  into  the  treating  tanks.'  A filter  is 
included  when  necessary. 

In  this  apparatus  the  treating  tanks  are  alternately 
filled  with  the  water.  The  reagents  are  introduced 
while  a tank  is.  filling  and  the  solution  is  thoroughly 
mixed  by  the  rotating  paddle.  The  paddle  is  operated 
by  power  from  a line  shaft  or  other  source.  The  revolv- 
ing paddle  also  stirs  up  the  old  sludge,  which  floats 
about  in  the  water  and  hastens  the  action.  When  the 
tank  is  full,  the  paddle  is  stopped  and  the  water  left  to 
stand  so  that  the  precipitate  can  settle  to  the  bottom.' 
The  softened  water  is  drawn  off  from  the  top  by  means 
of  a hinged  floating  outlet  pipe.  The  water  then  passes 
through  the  filter  beds,  when  necessary,  to  remove  any 
sludge  which  may  be  carried  along. 

During  the  time  that  one  tank  is  filled,  treated  and 
settled,  the  other  is  used  to  supply  the  treated  water,  so 
that  when  one  is  empty  the  other  is  ready  for  use.  This 
method  insures  a steady  supply  of  clear  softened  water. 
In  the  bottom  of  the  tanks  there  are  pipe  connections 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


39 


for  filling  and  washing  the  tanks.  The  tanks  have  to  be 
washed  out  about  once  each  week  when  in  use.  This  is 
done  by  opening  the  valves  to  the  sewer  and  starting 
the  paddle  which  stirs  up  the  sludge.  The  soft  sludge 
then  runs  out. 

The  Continuous  System. 

One  of  the  several  types  of  continuous  apparatus  is 
shown  in  Figs.  13  to  16.  This  particular  apparatus  is 
called  the  tower  type.  It  consists  of  a tower  tank  which 
has  separate  compartments  for  the  lime  and  soda  re- 
actions and  for  settling,  and  mechanical  stirring  paddles 
in  the  reaction  compartments.  With  the  tower  tank 
there  are  provided  lime  and  soda  solution  tanks  with 
mechanical  paddles,  a pump  for  forcing  the  solutions 
into  the  compartments,  a motor  or  engine  to  operate  the 
paddles  and  pumps,  and  a gravity  or  pressure  filter. 
The  apparatus  is  automatic  and  continuous  in  opera- 
tion. The  quantity  of  the  reagent  introduced  into  the 
water  is  regulated  by  the  quantity  of  the  water  which 
flows  through  the  apparatus.  The  speed  of  the  pumps 
is  regulated  by  the  amount  of  water  which  comes  into 
the  apparatus  and  in  turn  the  quantity  of  the  reagents 
which  are  pumped  into  the  water  is  regulated  by  the 
pumps. 

The  water  enters  the  tank  from  the  bottom  and 
passes  into  the  first  compartment,  where  it  is  treated 
with  one  reagent,  and  then  enters  the  second  compart- 
ment, where  it  is  treated  with  another  reagent.  As  in 
the  intermittent  type  previously  described,  the  revolv- 
ing paddles  mix  the  reagent  with  the  water  and  the  old 
sludge  helps  to  hasten  the  precipitation.  The  water 
then  passes  up  into  the  third  and  top  compartment 
which  acts  as  a settling  tank.  This  top  compartment  is 
sometimes  made  large  enough  so  that  it  can  be  used 
for  storing  the  treated  water.  The  treated  water  is 
drawn  off  through  a floating  outlet  pipe,  which  also 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


Fig.  13. 

THE  CONTINUOUS  SYSTEM  — TOWER  TYPE. 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


41 


Fig.  14. 

THE  CONTINUOUS-TOWER  TYPE  SYSTEM. 

With  treated -water  storage  in  treating  tank  outside  of  building.  With  low- 
pressure  filters  and  operating  apparatus  inside  of  building. 


THE  CONTINUOUS-TOWER  TYPE  SYSTEM. 
With  gravity  filters  supplying  boiler-feed  pump. 


42 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


THE  CONTINUOUS-TOWER  TYPE  SYSTEM. 
With  gravity  flow  to  open  heater. 


acts  as  a regulator  for  the  water  which  enters  the  tower, 
and  the  water  passes  through  filters  before  reaching 
the  steam  plant. 

These  systems  are  generally  installed  outside  of  the 
steam  plant  and  in  large  installations  they  form  .a 
separate  plant  in  themselves.  There  are  various  mod- 
ifications of  the  continuous  and  intermittent  types 
which  have  been  described,  each  having  its  own  merits, 
but  the  general  scheme  in  each  case  is  the  same.  There 
is  one  other  type  of  apparatus  which  is  used  inside  the 
steam  plant  and  which  treats  the  hot  water  under 
pressure  as  it  comes  from  the  heaters.  (See  Figs.  17 
and  18.)  It  is  very  compact.  The  water  is  treated 
under  pressure  at  a temperature  of  175°  F.,  or  more, 
and  the  chemical  action  is  very  fast.  The  precipitate 
is  removed  by  filters  and  by  blowing  it  out  from  the 
precipitating  tanks.  In  all  of  the  systems  the  complete 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


43 


Fig.  i 7. 

THE  SCAIFE  SYSTEM. 


44 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


THE  SCAIFE  SYSTEM  — WITH  CLOSED  HEATER. 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


45 


action  of  the  reagents  on  the  water  is  accomplished  and 
the  treated  water  is  very  satisfactory  for  steam  plants. 

The  systems  which  have  been  described  require 
some  attention  daily.  They  can  be  cared  for  by  an 
engineer  or  fireman  without  affecting  his  other  work. 
Tests  have  to  be  made  from  time  to  time  and  the  pro- 
portion of  the  reagents  changed  to  meet  the  varying 
conditions.  Since  there  is  considerable  chance  for  error 
if  this  is  not  carefully  done,  the  efficiency  of  the  system 
depends  upon  the  operator  to  a large  extent. 

The  Cost  of  Softening  and  Purification. 

The  exact  cost  of  softening  and  purifying  a feed- 
water  varies  in  nearly  every  case.  It  is  evident  that  a 
water  containing  a lime  content  of  thirty  grains  will 
cost  more  to  soften  and  purify  than  a water  having  a 
lime  content  of  15  grains.  Besides  the  original  invest- 
ment, the  various  savings  effected  must  be  considered 
in  considering  the  cost  of  a softening  plant.  Roughly 
the  investment  will  come  to  $5  for  each  horse-power 
for  small  plants  up  to  500  H.-P;  $4  for  each  horse- 
power in  plants  of  500  to  800  H.-P. ; $3.50  per  H.-P.  for 
plants  of  800  to  1,250  H.-P;  and  for  plants  of  1,300  to 
6,000  H.-P.,  or  larger,  the  cost  will  amount  to  $3  to 
$1.50  per  H.-P. 

In  Fig.  19  some  figures  are  given  which  give  a 
good  idea  of  the  savings  which  result  from  treated 
water.  They  were  compiled  by  Mr.  J.  C.  Wm.  Greth. 
The  plant  was  a 450  H.-P.  one,  and  the  saving  in  coal, 
which  would  amount  to  about  one  per  cent,  was  not 
considered,  because  the  plant  was  operated  at  a coal 
mine. 

Regulation  and  Purification. 

Filtration. — Whenever  the  feed-water  is  muddy  or 
if  it  contains  suspended  matter,  it  must  be  filtered  be- 
fore it  is  used.  When  any  of  the  tank  systems  just 


46 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


Operating  with  Well  Water. 

Boiler  repairs,  new  tubes,  and  labor $1,450.00 

Cleaning  boilers,  two  days  each  week,  52  cleanings  a year,  104  days 

at  $1.60  each 166.40 

Cleaning  heater  twice  a week  (soda  ash  used  in  heater),  5 hours 

each  cleaning,  52  days’  labor  at  $1.60 83.20 

Soda  ash,  30,000  lb.  at  1 cent  per  lb * 300.00 


$1,999.60 

Operating  with  Water-Softening  .System- 
Treating  Well  Water, 


Boiler  repair^  (three  new  tubes)... $111.00 

Cleaning  each  boiler,  4 boilers,  4 times  a year,  2 days  each 

cleaning,  32  days  at  $1.60  per  day 51.20 

Cost  of  treating  water  (about  4 cents  per  thousand  gallons)  531.36 

Depreciation  at  10  per  cent  on  investment  of  $1,900..^ 190.00 

Interest  at  6 per  cent  on  investment  of  $1,900 .’ 114.00  997-56 


Savings  effected $1,002.04 


Almost  53  per  cent  on  an  investment  of  $1,900.00. 


Well  Water. 


Raw. 

Grs.  per 
U.  S. 
Gallon. 

Volatile  and  Organic  Matter..  1.85 

Silica  1 °5 

Oxides  of  Iron  and  Alumina.,  trace 

Calcium  Sulphate  3060 

Magnesium  Carbonate  H-34 

Magnesium  Sulphate  2.15 

Sodium  Sulphate  4-39 

Sodium  Chloride  i.8r 


Total  Solids  53-  T9 

Suspended  Matter 10 

Free  Carbonic  Acid 55 

Incrusting  Substances  46.99 


Treated. 

Grs.  per 
U.  S. 
Gallon. 


Volatile  and  Organic  Matter..  .55 

Silica  12 

Oxides  of  Iron  and  Alumina.,  trace 

Calcium  Carbonate  2.11 

Magnesium  Carbonate 51 

Magnesium  Hydrate 70 

Sodium  Carbonate 13 

Sodium  Sulphate  3878 

Sodium  Chloride  180 


Total  Solids  4470 

Incrusting  Substances  3.99 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


47 


described  are  used,  a filter  is  generally  included  to  re- 
move any  sludge  which  remains  after  the  water  leaves 
the  settling  compartment.  The  feed-water  should 
always  be  free  from  suspended  matter  as  well  as  the 
soluble  impurities  as  far  as  is  possible,  before  entering 
the  steam  plant. 

The  principle  of  the  sand  filter  is  understood  by 
most  of  the  readers  without  doubt.  A good  type  of 
filter  with  a few  novel  features  is  shown  in  Fig.  20. 


Fig.  20. 

In  this  type  of  filter  a coagulent  such  as  aluminum 
sulphate  is  used.  A comparatively  high  rate  of  flow  is 
obtained. 


48 


SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 


A good  filter  should  remove  all  of  the  suspended 
matter,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  no  filter  can 
remove  the  soluble  dissolved  matter. 

The  Surface  Blow-off.— This  boiler  attachment  is 
not  a water  purifier,  but  it  is  mentioned  because  it  is 
useful  in  connection  with  the  methods  of  treating 
water.  Its  service  is  limited  to  the  removal  of  the 
impurities  which  gather  at  the  water  line  in  a boiler. 
It  is  invaluable  in  plants  where  boiler  compounds  are 
resorted  to.  By  frequent  blowing,  the  impurities, 
which  concentrate  in  the  boiler  from  evaporation,  can 
be  reduced  to  a considerable  extent. 

Chemical  Feed-water  Heaters. — The  chemical  feed- 
water  heater  has  been  tried  with  a little  success.  In- 
stead of  putting  the  reagent  mixture  in  the  boiler  it  is 
introduced  into  the  heater.  A filter  is  used  to  separate 
the  resulting  precipitate.  The  chief  defect  of  this 
method  is  that  it  does  not  remove  all  of  the  impurities, 
and  although  it  appears  better  than  putting  compounds 
into  the  boiler,  enough  impurities  pass  into  the  boiler 
to  form  scale  in  spite  of  this  treatment. 

Other  Purification  Systems. — There  are  many 
other  systems  which  aim  to  treat  the  water  so  as  to 
purify  it  for  steam  purposes.  The  Patent  Office 
records  contain  a long  list  of  these  attempts.  Some 
appear  to  be  good,  others  are  workable,  and  still  others 
are  absolutely  useless.  Almost  everything  seems  to 
have  been  tried,  including  mechanical,  electrical  and 
chemical  methods.  The  perfect  and  inexpensive  water 
purifier  remains  to  be  invented.  It  must  be  cheap, 
automatic,  reliable  and  furnish  pure  water. 

Finally. — It  is  hoped  that  this  short  treatise  has 
pointed  out  the  importance  of  good  feed-water;  how 
the  impurities  in  a given  supply  can  be  determined  in 
a simple  manner  with  a fair  degree  of  accuracy;  and 
how  a water  supply  can  be  regulated  and  purified  for 
steam  purposes. 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


PAGE 

Acids  24 

Acid  Test,  The 15 

Acid  Waters  18 

Boiler  Compounds 32 

Boiler  Precipitates  25 

Calcium  20 

Calcium  Chlorid 27 

Carbonates  25 

Carbonate  of  Iron 20-28 

Carbonate  of  Magnesia 28 

Chemical  Feed-water  Heaters 48 

Chemical  Regents  31 

Chlorid  of  Magnesium 28 

Continuous  System,  The 39 

Cost  of  Softening  and  Purification,  The 45 

Defects  of  Boiler  Compounds 34 

Delicate  Test,  A 20 

Determination  of  Hardness 8 

Dissolved  Mineral  Salts 25 

Effects  of  the  Impurities 24 

Feed-water  3 

Filtration 45 

Hardness 7 

Intermittent  System,  The 37 

Iron  Test 20 

Lake  Water 3 

Lime  Water 10 


50  SIMPLE  WATER  TESTING. 

PAGE 

Method 9 

Methyl  Orange  15 

Nitrate  of  Lime 28 

Occurrence  of  Water  in  Nature 1 

Operation,  The 11 

Organic  Acid 24 

Organic  Matter 24 

Other  Purification  Systems 48 

Permissible  Hardness 16 

Purification  of  Water,  The 30 

Regulation  and  Purification 22 

Remarks 13 

Silicia  28 

Soap  Test,  The 8 

Softening  and  Purification  Tank  Systems 35 

Source  of  Water 1 

Standard  Sulphuric  Acid 10 

Sulphate  of  Lime 25 

Sulphate  of  Magnesia 28 

Supply  from  Rivers 3 

Surface  Blow-off,  The 48 

Test  for  Chlorids,  The 18 

Test  for  Sulphates,  The 18 

Testing,  The 5 


Chemistry  for  the  Engineer, 
the  Electrician  and  the 
Operating  Man 

By  CHARLES  A.  WATKINS,  Ph.D. 


This  book  is  written 
for  the  practical  oper- 
ating man,  because  it 
deals  with  the  subject  in 
such  a manner  as  to  give 
valuable  knowledge  in 
reference  to  such  chem- 
istry as  is  of  especial 
use  to  engineers,  elec- 
tricians, etc.,  in  every- 
day life. 


Among  the  subjects  treated  in  this  work  are: 

The  Air:  Its  Value  in  the  Development  of  Chemistry. 

The  Air:  Its  Constituents  and  Their  Functions. 

Water:  Its  Composition  and  One  of  Its  Constituents. 

Water  as  a Natural  Substance. 

The  Chemical  Equation.  Carbon : The  Element.  The  Heating 
Value  of  Fuel : General  Principles.  Technology  of  Fuels.  Solid 
Prepared  Fuels.  Liquid  Fuels.  Gaseous  Fuels.  Coal  Gases. 
Water  Gases. 

Producer  Gases.  Chemical  Formulations  and  Calculations. 
The  Combustion  of  Coal  under  the  Boiler.  Flue  Gas.  The 
Analysis  of  Flue  Gas.  Heat  Losses  in  Combustion. 

Heat  Losses  in  Flue  Gas.  Other  Heat  Losses.  Chemical 
Talks,  etc. 

Handsomely  bound  in  cloth,  printed  in  large  type,  on  good 
paper  and  fully  illustrated. 

Price,  postpaid $1.50 


One  Thousand  Questions  and 
Answers  for  Engineers,  Applicants 
for  License  and  Electricians 

By  JOSEPH  G.  BRANCH,  former  Member  of  the 
Board  of  Examining  Engineers  of  the 
City  of  St.  Louis,  Editor  “Practical 
Electricity  and  Engineering.” 

This  book  contains  questions  with  answers, 
asked  by  Examining  Boards  for'engineer’s  license, 
and  for  electrician’s  card,  and  alfeo  questions  and 
answers  covering  the  entire  field  of  steam  engin- 
eering and  practical  electricity,  including  wiring 
diagrams. 

It  is  a complete  library  in  one  volume,  and 
one  that  no  progressive  engineer,  electrician,  fire- 
man, dynamo  tender,  or  student  can  afford  not 
to  have  with  him  at  all  times,  or  within  reach. 

The  book  is  printed  in  large  type,  fully  il- 
lustrated, 180  pages,  5^x7  V2  inches,  and  is 
strictly  up  to  date. 

If  you  wish  immediate  delivery  you  must 
write  today  as  the  first  edition  is  already  about 
sold. 


The  Electric  Motor 

and  Its  Practical  Operation 

By  ELMER  E.  BURNS 

The  only  book  giving  a simple,  clear  and 
up-to-date  explanation  of  the  principles  and  opera- 
tion of  all  kinds  of  electric  motors. 

CONTENTS 

Chapter  I. — How  an  Electric  Current  Can 
Produce  Motion. 

Chapter  II. — The  Beginning  and  Growth  of 
the  Electric  Motor. 

Chapter  III. — Power  and  Efficiency  of  a Motor. 

Chapter  IV. — Counter-electromotive  force. 

Chapter  V. — How  Power  is  Lost  in  a Motor. 

Chapter  VI. — Armatures  and  Cummutators. 

Chapter  VII. — Types  of  Direct-current  Motors. 

Chapter  VIII. — Starting  Boxes  and  Their  Connections. 

Chapter  IX. — Curve  Tracing. 

Chapter  X. — How  to  Understand  Alternating-current  Motors. 

Chapter  XI. — Operation  of  Alternating  Current  Motors. 

Chapter  XII. — Speed  Control  of  Motors. 

Chapter  XIII. — Motor  Troubles  and  How  to  Cure  Them. 

Chapter  XIV. — Selecting  and  Installing  Motors. 

Appendix. — Horse-power  Required  to  DriveVarious  Machines. 

Size  5^x7^  inches;  200  pages;  fully  illustrated. 

The  Joseph  G.  Branch  Publishing  Company 

608  South  Dearborn  St.,  CHICAGO,  ILL. 


Price,  $1.50,  Postpaid. 


